"Relative economic effort and willingness to pay for ecosystem services in rural Amazonian communities"

Abstract

"Summary Tropical forests provide essential ecosystem services (ESs) that sustain local livelihoods, yet rural Amazonian communities-among those most dependent on these services-remain under-represented in empirical valuation studies, limiting the integration of local conservation values into policy design. This study addresses this gap by estimating the willingness to pay (WTP) for ES conservation and the relative economic effort (WTP/income ratio) in two rural communities of the Peruvian Amazon: San Joaquín de Omaguas and Santa Clara de Nanay. Using a dichotomous contingent valuation format, 481 households were surveyed in 2024, and WTP was estimated through logit models following National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) guidelines. The results indicate an average WTP of PEN 3.076 (USD 0.86) per month-equivalent to 0.50% of income-representing a higher relative effort than is typically reported in high-income countries and consistent with the lower bound of values observed in low-income settings. Education, household size and local origin increased WTP, whereas income showed a negative association. These findings align with international evidence showing that education and social-relational values rather than income are the key drivers of WTP in low-income contexts. Despite these efforts, aggregate local contributions would be insufficient to finance conservation actions. Therefore, context-sensitive financial mechanisms-such as community environmental funds, differentiated contribution schemes and external co-financing-are needed to ensure equity and sustainability. This study contributes original empirical evidence from low-income Amazonian communities and highlights the relevance of the WTP/income ratio as a comparative indicator to inform equitable and transparent conservation finance. © The Author(s), 2026. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Foundation for Environmental Conservation."